A plated through-hole (PTH) in a multilayer circuit board features a copper-plated barrel extending through the internal circuit layers; it is not merely an empty hole connecting the top and bottom layers

Through-beam sensors require two units positioned on opposite sides of the object, perfectly aligned. Many automated production lines feature mechanical gaps of only a few millimeters, leaving insufficient space for both units. In contrast, diffuse-reflective fiber-optic sensors integrate both the light emitter and receiver into a single sensing head, requiring access from only one side

A stereo microscope is suitable for visual inspection, 3D surfaces, and applications that require direct manipulation of the specimen. A metallurgical microscope is better suited to flat, prepared metal samples and applications that require high-magnification analysis of microstructures.

An overview of the Washing Colour Fastness Tester, its role in garment and printed-fabric durability evaluation, and the key stages of a controlled wash-test workflow.

A practical overview of the setup and test sequence for the Vertical Combustibility Tester GT-C35B when evaluating vertically oriented materials.